Scientific Revolution (1543-1687)

From Copernicus's 1543 heliocentric model to Newton's 1687 Principia, the Scientific Revolution replaced religious authority with empirical observation and mathematical reasoning. Galileo's telescopic discoveries in 1610 confirmed heliocentrism and challenged 1,400 years of Aristotelian dogma. The revolution's core method—hypothesis, experimentation, and peer review—remains the gold standard for knowledge creation, a benchmark no other intellectual upheaval on this list has matched in durability.